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Solar Panel System for Home: A Smart Move Towards a Sustainable Future

25/10/2024 shubham No Comments

As we live in the world where energy rates are constantly increasing, there is nothing more important than to stay as sustainable and cost-efficient as possible. One such solution which has received tremendous response is a solar panel system for home. As it not only saves the electricity bills but also plays an important role in protection of the environment because we are now avoiding the consequences of the carbon emissions.

If you are thinking about having an installed solar panel system in your house you are among the lucky few. An ever increasing number of people across the globe are installing solar electricity in their homes because of the long-term benefits and increasing acceptance of the technology by governments. In India itself, the relatively new PM Surya Ghar Yojna scheme is the prime encouragement that has made it easy and cheap for households to shift to solar powe.

What is a Solar Panel System for Home?

Solar energy can be harnessed in residential homes via a system of solar panels, PV panels, installed on the rooftops or open areas to convert sunlight into electrical energy. A typical system includes solar panels, an inverter, battery (for extra energy when sun is not hitting the solar panels), and a meter which measures how much energy being output and consumed.

The efficiency of a photovoltaic system begins with solar panels that capture solar energy and transforms it into a direct current (DC) electricity. The DC electricity is changed into AC electricity by an inverter, which is what most energy consuming devices use in a household. Any extra energy made can be kept in batteries or fed back to the grid if your setup is grid-connected.

Benefits of Installing a Solar Panel System for Your Home

Reduced Electricity Bills: One of the biggest advantages of installing a solar panel system for home use is the substantial reduction in your electricity bills. Solar panels allow you to generate your own electricity, minimizing your dependence on the grid.
Environmentally Friendly: Solar power is a clean and renewable source of energy. By installing solar panels, you are actively contributing to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, thus playing a vital role in combating climate change.
Low Maintenance: Once installed, a solar panel system requires very little maintenance. Regular cleaning and occasional check-ups ensure that the system continues to function efficiently for years.
Increased Property Value: Homes equipped with solar panel systems often see an increase in property value. Many buyers are looking for energy-efficient homes, and solar panels are a big plus.
Government Incentives: Governments around the world, including India, offer incentives and subsidies to encourage the installation of solar panels. The PM Surya Ghar Yojna is a perfect example of such support.

PM Surya Ghar Yojna: A Boost to Solar Energy Adoption

To promote renewable energy and make it accessible to everyone, the Indian government launched the PM Surya Ghar Yojna. This scheme aims to provide financial assistance to homeowners for installing solar panel systems on their rooftops. By making solar power more affordable, the government is pushing towards its target of increasing the country’s solar capacity while also helping individuals reduce their electricity costs.

Key features of the PM Surya Ghar Yojna include:

Subsidies on Solar Panels: The government offers subsidies that can cover a significant portion of the installation cost, making it easier for homeowners to afford solar panel systems.
Loan Assistance: The scheme also provides access to low-interest loans, allowing families to install solar panels without a large upfront investment.
Technical Support: The government provides technical guidance and support to ensure the smooth installation and functioning of solar panel systems.

By availing the benefits under PM Surya Ghar Yojna, more families can switch to solar energy, contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable future while reducing their dependence on non-renewable energy sources.

Factors to Consider Before Installing a Solar Panel System for Your Home

While installing a solar panel system for home use has numerous benefits, it’s essential to consider a few factors before taking the plunge:

Location and Sunlight Exposure: The efficiency of solar panels depends on the amount of sunlight your location receives. Homes in areas with high solar exposure are ideal for installing solar systems.
Roof Space: Ensure you have enough roof space to accommodate the number of solar panels needed to meet your energy requirements.
Cost and Budget: Although the PM Surya Ghar Yojna provides financial assistance, it’s important to assess the overall cost, including installation and maintenance, and plan your budget accordingly.
Energy Needs: Calculate your household’s energy consumption to determine the size and type of solar panel system you need. Larger systems will generate more electricity but may require a bigger investment.
Grid Connection: Decide whether you want a grid-tied or off-grid solar system. A grid-tied system allows you to sell excess energy back to the grid, while an off-grid system offers independence from the power grid but requires battery storage.

Conclusion

Installing solar panels is a remarkable investment since it brings financial returns as well as improves living conditions for the environment. Further, over the years, these systems have gotten much more affordable with the aid of government schemes such as the PM Surya Ghar Yojna. In addition, you will help save the environment, as consumers of solar panels promote a cleaner planet. Today’s society is moving towards more sustainable energy sources and there is probably no better time than now to utilize the sun and help make the world a better place.

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सौर ऊर्जा: स्वच्छ और असीमित ऊर्जा का स्रोत

12/09/2024 SHRI SOLAR No Comments

सौर ऊर्जा (Solar Energy) वह ऊर्जा है, जो सूर्य की किरणों से प्राप्त होती है। यह नवीकरणीय ऊर्जा के सबसे लोकप्रिय और व्यापक रूप से उपयोग किए जाने वाले स्रोतों में से एक है। पर्यावरण के लिए बेहद अनुकूल है क्योंकि यह किसी भी प्रकार के हानिकारक उत्सर्जन को उत्पन्न नहीं करती और लंबे समय तक ऊर्जा का निरंतर स्रोत प्रदान करती है।

सौर ऊर्जा कैसे काम करती है?

सौर ऊर्जा को सोलर पैनल्स के माध्यम से प्राप्त किया जाता है। इन पैनल्स में फोटोवोल्टिक (PV) सेल्स होते हैं, जो सूर्य की किरणों को सीधे बिजली में परिवर्तित करते हैं। यह बिजली घरेलू, व्यावसायिक और औद्योगिक उपयोग के लिए उपयुक्त होती है। इसके अलावा, सौर ऊर्जा को सोलर थर्मल तकनीक के माध्यम से भी प्राप्त किया जा सकता है, जिसमें सूर्य की गर्मी का उपयोग पानी को गर्म करने या बिजली उत्पन्न करने के लिए किया जाता है।

सौर ऊर्जा के लाभ

पर्यावरण के अनुकूल: सौर ऊर्जा से बिजली उत्पादन के दौरान किसी भी प्रकार का कार्बन उत्सर्जन नहीं होता, जिससे यह ग्लोबल वार्मिंग और जलवायु परिवर्तन को कम करने में सहायक है।
असीमित स्रोत: सूर्य एक असीमित ऊर्जा स्रोत है, जो नियमित रूप से और हर जगह उपलब्ध है। इसका उपयोग करने से ऊर्जा की स्थिरता बनी रहती है।
लंबी अवधि में सस्ती: एक बार सोलर पैनल स्थापित करने के बाद, बिजली उत्पादन की लागत बहुत कम होती है। यह एक लंबी अवधि के लिए सस्ता और लाभकारी निवेश साबित होता है।
आसान रखरखाव: सोलर पैनल्स का रखरखाव सरल होता है और इनके पास कोई चलने वाले हिस्से नहीं होते, जिससे यह कम टूट-फूट का सामना करता है।
ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में उपयोग: दूरस्थ और ग्रामीण इलाकों में बिजली पहुंचाने का एक प्रभावी साधन है, जहाँ ग्रिड कनेक्शन उपलब्ध नहीं हो पाता।

सौर ऊर्जा की चुनौतियाँ

सौर ऊर्जा की कुछ सीमाएँ भी हैं। इसका उत्पादन मौसम और सूर्य के उपलब्धता पर निर्भर करता है, और रात के समय इसका उपयोग नहीं किया जा सकता। हालांकि, बैटरी टेक्नोलॉजी के विकास से इस समस्या का समाधान किया जा रहा है, जिससे ऊर्जा को संग्रहीत करके बाद में उपयोग किया जा सकता है।

निष्कर्ष

सौर ऊर्जा एक सुरक्षित, स्वच्छ और असीमित ऊर्जा का स्रोत है। यह भविष्य के ऊर्जा संकटों का समाधान पेश करती है और पर्यावरण संरक्षण के लिए महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाती है। जैसे-जैसे तकनीक में सुधार हो रहा है, सौर ऊर्जा के उपयोग के और अधिक व्यापक होने की संभावना है, जिससे एक स्वच्छ और स्थायी भविष्य का निर्माण संभव हो सकेगा।

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सौर पैनलों के लाभ: पर्यावरण, आर्थिक बचत और ऊर्जा स्वतंत्रता।

12/08/2024 SHRI SOLAR No Comments

प्रश्न 1: सौर पैनल क्या होते हैं और यह कैसे काम करते हैं?
उत्तर: सौर पैनल एक उपकरण होता है जो सूर्य की किरणों से ऊर्जा प्राप्त करके उसे बिजली में परिवर्तित करता है। इसमें सौर सेल्स होते हैं, जो सिलिकॉन से बने होते हैं। जब सूर्य की रोशनी इन सौर सेल्स पर पड़ती है, तो वे फोटॉन को अवशोषित करते हैं और इलेक्ट्रॉनों को मुक्त करते हैं। इन इलेक्ट्रॉनों की गति से विद्युत धारा उत्पन्न होती है, जिसे हम बिजली के रूप में उपयोग कर सकते हैं।

प्रश्न 2: सौर पैनलों का पर्यावरण पर क्या प्रभाव पड़ता है?
उत्तर: सौर पैनल पर्यावरण के लिए बेहद लाभकारी होते हैं। ये प्रदूषण नहीं फैलाते और किसी प्रकार के हानिकारक गैसों का उत्सर्जन नहीं करते। इसके विपरीत, यह एक स्वच्छ और नवीकरणीय ऊर्जा स्रोत है, जो जीवाश्म ईंधनों की तुलना में बहुत कम कार्बन फुटप्रिंट छोड़ता है। सौर ऊर्जा के उपयोग से पर्यावरण को हो रही क्षति को कम किया जा सकता है, जिससे ग्लोबल वार्मिंग और जलवायु परिवर्तन जैसी समस्याओं को नियंत्रित किया जा सकता है।

प्रश्न 3: सौर पैनल लगाने से बिजली बिल में कैसे कमी आ सकती है?
उत्तर: सौर पैनल से उत्पन्न होने वाली बिजली का उपयोग घर या उद्योगों में किया जा सकता है। यह बिजली पूरी तरह से मुफ्त होती है, क्योंकि इसे सूर्य की रोशनी से उत्पन्न किया जाता है। जब आप सौर ऊर्जा का उपयोग करते हैं, तो आपको ग्रिड से कम बिजली लेनी पड़ती है, जिससे बिजली बिल में भारी कमी आ जाती है। कई मामलों में, लोग अपनी जरूरत से ज्यादा बिजली उत्पन्न कर लेते हैं, जिसे वे ग्रिड को बेच सकते हैं, जिससे उन्हें अतिरिक्त आय भी हो सकती है।

प्रश्न 4: सौर पैनल का दीर्घकालिक आर्थिक लाभ क्या है?
उत्तर: सौर पैनल एक बार स्थापित हो जाने पर दीर्घकालिक आर्थिक लाभ प्रदान करते हैं। हालांकि शुरुआत में इसे स्थापित करने का खर्च अधिक हो सकता है, लेकिन इसकी लंबी अवधि में बिजली के खर्च की बचत से यह लागत वसूल हो जाती है। इसके अलावा, कई सरकारें सौर पैनलों के लिए सब्सिडी और टैक्स छूट भी प्रदान करती हैं, जिससे इसकी लागत और भी कम हो जाती है। सौर पैनल की उम्र भी लंबी होती है, और यह कम से कम 25-30 साल तक सेवा प्रदान कर सकते हैं, जिससे दीर्घकालिक आर्थिक लाभ मिलता है।

प्रश्न 5: क्या सौर पैनल हर जगह उपयोग किए जा सकते हैं?
उत्तर: सौर पैनल का उपयोग अधिकांश स्थानों पर किया जा सकता है, लेकिन इसकी दक्षता और उत्पादन क्षमता उस क्षेत्र की भौगोलिक स्थिति और मौसम पर निर्भर करती है। उदाहरण के लिए, धूप वाले क्षेत्रों में सौर पैनल अधिक बिजली उत्पन्न कर सकते हैं, जबकि ठंडे या छायादार स्थानों में इनकी उत्पादन क्षमता कम हो सकती है। इसके बावजूद, तकनीकी प्रगति के साथ सौर पैनलों की क्षमता में सुधार हो रहा है, जिससे वे अधिक से अधिक क्षेत्रों में उपयोगी हो रहे हैं।

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Harnessing Solar Power: The Benefits of Solar Panels

23/07/2024 SHRI SOLAR No Comments

Solar panels have played a great role in the energy industry by providing greensources of energy from the sun. These photovoltaic systems have several bonuses which concern environmental preserves as well as the economic efficiency and therefore it is impossible to consider the contemporary methods of energy supply without presenting the photovoltaic systems as highlights.

1. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Source

The main concept of solar panels is in using sunlight to produce power without trending nonrenewable resources. This form of energy is beyond compare when it comes to availability and the fact that it does not pollute environment like the fossil fuels do. People and companies that decide to install solar panels become less of a burden to the environment and contribute to environmentally friendly procedures.

2. Cost Savings and Financial Incentives

Harnessing of solar energy through solar panels is a long-term investment plan that once established, costs of electricity consumption are reduced. While the first financial investment is high, the costs set down through innovations and government policies such as tax credit and subsidy, makes solar energy steadily cheaper. In countries such as India, programs like the “PM Surya Ghar Yojna” which is the Solar Home Scheme by the Prime Minister endeavour to facilitate the use of solar power by offering monetary support and rebates for having solar panels fixed on the residents’ homes.

3. Low Maintenance and Longevity

Professionals also appreciate solar panels because they are very tough structures that demand little to no maintenance. This is relatively very simple since they do not have any moving parts and mostly only need cleaning and checking from time to time for maximum functionality. The typical warranties offered with most solar panels are of 20 to 25 years, however, most panels perform beyond these warranties and maintain their efficiency beyond those periods. This reliability makes them a cheaper option when costs are considered over the useful life of products.

4. Environmental Benefits

Indeed, solar panels give out electricity from the sun instead of burning fossil fuels, hence emitted little to no greenhouse gasses and air pollutants. It also reduces the cases of climate change together with the quality of air since carbon emission is reduced; thus, the provision of healthy living conditions for the societies is enhanced. Moreover, the usage of water in solar energy production is much less than in thermal power plants thereby useful water is saved.

5. Energy Independence and Grid Stability

Solar panels and renewable energy in general helps the concept of energy independence because it cuts across the centralized approaches to energy production. The benefits or residential and commercial properties with solar panels are able to produce their own electricity thus deregulating themselves from centralized power stations. These structures have improved energy security and reliability especially in the event of blackouts and calamities. In addition, excess power produced by the panels can be sold back into the utility company which helps the utility firm maintain a steady flow of energy supply while cutting down on total energy costs.

6. Economic Growth and Job Creation

This gives birth to employment opportunities in the solar panel manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and research, which are considered drivers of economic development. Such tendative as PM Surya Ghar Yojna in India not only supports the generation of solar energy but also help in the boosting of employment in the nation for the same. Also, generating investments in solar energy generation, construction and development of solar energy structures comprehensively contribute to allowing technology advancement in the energy sector effectively promote a change to the sustainable energy future.

7. Scalability and Adaptability

Solar panels are flexible, modular and can be used in residential, commercial, industrial andutility applications For example, they can be installed on rooftops, or on power stations, in the form of utility-scale stations. Due to their modularity, they can be added or connected independently of other sections that can cater for different energy requirements and areas. Solar advancement has remained keep on increasing, hence reducing the cost of electricity from solar and therefore increasing accessibility all around the globe.

Conclusion

Solar panels can be considered as one of the key solutions in the attainment of sustainable energy objectives across the world. In this regard, the present research is aimed at analysing how people, societies and countries can decrease the negative effect on the environment, increase energy security and stimulate economic development by using solar energy. To further enhance the intent and purpose of promoting solar energy adoption and change intervention, the programs such as India’s PM Surya Ghar Yojna are noteworthy. Solar electricity not only contributes to the protection of the environment but also helps people to take a stand in owning the energy of the future towards a better tomorrow.

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Solar Energy Secure

21/11/2023 SHRI SOLAR 3 Comments

Prime Minister Narendra Modi on said India is considered the most attractive clean energy market because of the tremendous progress in this field and added solar energy will play a key role in achieving the Atmanirbhar Bharat (self-reliant India) goal. He called solar energy pure, sure, and secure. “It is sure because other sources of energy might be depleted but not of the sun. It will always continue to shine. It is pure because it helps the environment instead of polluting it and secure because it is a symbol of self-reliance,” said Modi while inaugurating Asia’s biggest–750 MW –solar power plant in Madhya Pradesh’s Rewa via video conferencing.

Modi said when policy markers were in a dilemma globally whether to focus on the economy or environment and took decisions, either way, India had shown the way that they complemented each other.

“Whether it is Swachh Bharat [Clean India] campaign or campaign to provide LPG and PNG to every family or building the network of CNG-based transport system across the country or efforts for electricity-based transport in the country, several such measures are being undertaken for making the lives of people better in an environment-friendly manner,” he said.

He added this is why environment protection and ease of living are being given preference in all government programmes. “For us, protection of the environment is not confined to a few projects but it is a way of life. When we are launching big projects of renewable energy, we are trying to ensure that our resolve towards clean energy is reflected in every aspect of our life, and also our efforts are to see that its benefit goes to every citizen, every class and every part of the country.”

Modi said 360 million LED bulbs have been distributed across the country and over 10 million fitted in street lights over the last six years. He added prices of LED bulbs were once beyond the common man’s reach. In the past six years, the prices have reduced 10 times and people were now using 9-10 watt instead of 100-200 watt bulbs, he said. As a result, he said, the consumption of power has been reduced by 6 billion units and people save Rs 24,000 crore annually. Modi added it has also prevented 40 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from entering the environment and thus pollution level came down.

Modi cited the government’s policy on solar power and added the price of solar energy has come down to Rs 2-2.50 per unit from Rs 7-8 per unit in 2014. He added it has benefitted industries, employment generation, and people. “There is a discussion going on in the entire world as to how solar energy is so low-priced in India. When there is a discussion on renewable energy in the world, India is being seen as a model.”

Modi said the solar power potential cannot be utilised completely till the country has better solar panels, battery, and storage capacity. “Work is going on in this direction. The country’s aim under Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan is to do away with our dependence on imports for various hardware including solar panels. Necessary steps are being taken to enhance the manufacturing of solar PV modules.”

Modi asked entrepreneurs, youths, and startups to take advantage of the country’s potential in the solar energy field. “It has been made mandatory to use solar photovoltaic cells and modules made in India in pumps under Kusum [Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan] scheme and rooftop panels on houses. It has been decided that the government departments and other government institutions will only purchase made in India solar cells or modules. At the same time, the government is encouraging the companies which are setting up power plants to manufacture solar photovoltaic.”

Madhya Pradesh chief minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan said the foundation for the Rs 4000 crore project was laid in 2017 and the power it will produce will cost Rs 2.97 per unit, which is the lowest rate in the country. “From the environmental point of view, emission of 15.7 lakh tonnes of carbon dioxide is being prevented…which is equal to planting 26 million trees. …24% of the power produced is going to the Delhi Metro.”

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National Solar Mission

16/02/2019 SHRI SOLAR No Comments

NATION SOLAR MISSION

The National Solar Mission is an initiative of the Government of India and State Governments to promote solar power. The mission is one of the several policies of the National Action Plan on Climate Change. The program was inaugurated as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission by former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 11 January 2010 with a target of 20 GW by 2022. This was later increased to 100 GW by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in the 2015 Union budget of India. India increased its utility solar power generation capacity by nearly 5 times from 2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to 12,288.83 MW on 31 March 2017. The country added 9,362.65 MW in 2017–18, the highest of any year. The original target of 20 GW was surpassed in 2018 (counting only utility installed capacity), four years ahead of the 2022 deadline.

India had a total rooftop solar installed capacity of 6.1 GW as of 30 June 2021.

The objective of the National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as possible. Under the original plan, the Government aimed to achieve a total installed solar capacity of 20 GW by 2022. This was proposed to be achieved in three phase. The first phase comprised the period from 2010 to 2013, the first year of the 12th five-year plan. The second phase extended up to 2017, while the third phase would have been the 13th five-year plan (2017–22). Targets were set as 1.4 GW in the first phase, 11–15 GW by the end of the second phase and 22 GW by the end of the third phase in 2022.

The Government revised the target from 20 GW to 100 GW on 1 July 2015. To reach 100 GW by 2022, the yearly targets from 2015 to 2016 onwards were also revised upwards.^] India had an installed solar capacity of 161 MW on 31 March 2010, about 2 and half months after the mission was launched on 11 January. By 31 March 2015, three months before the targets were revised, India had achieved an installed solar capacity of 3,744 MW.^]

Year-wise targets

To meet the scaled up target of 100,000 MW, MNRE has proposed to achieve it through 60 GW of large and medium scale solar projects, and 40 GW through rooftop solar projects.

Year-wise Targets (in MW)
Category	2015–16	2016–17	2017–18	2018–19	2019–20	2020–21	2021–22	Total
Rooftop Solar	200	4,800	5,000	6,000	7,000	8,000	9,000	40,000
Ground Mounted Solar projects	1,800	7,200	10,000	10,000	10,000	9,500	8,500	57,000
Total	2,000	12,000	15,000	16,000	17,000	17,500	17,500	97,000

Growth of utilities installed solar capacity

The following table records the growth of the utilities installed solar capacity in India for every year of the National Solar Mission. All capacities are as on 31 March of the listed year.

Rooftop solar capacity

India had a total rooftop solar installed capacity of 6.1 GW as of 30 June 2021. The country added 862 MW of rooftop solar capacity during the first half of 2021, recording a 210% increase over the same period in 2020.

Domestic content complaint

Guidelines for the solar mission mandated cells and modules for solar PV projects based on crystalline silicon to be manufactured in India. That accounts to over 60% of total system costs. For solar thermal, guidelines mandated 30% project to have domestic content. A vigorous controversy emerged between power project developers and solar PV equipment manufacturers. The former camp prefers to source modules by accessing highly competitive global market to attain flexible pricing, better quality, predictable delivery and use of latest technologies. The latter camp prefers a controlled/planned environment to force developers to purchase modules from a small, albeit growing, group of module manufacturers in India. Manufacturers want to avoid competition with global players and are lobbying the government to incentivize growth of local industry.

Market responded to domestic content requirement by choosing to procure thin film modules from well established international players. A significant number of announced project completions are using modules from outside India.

US Trade Representative has filed a complaint at World Trade Organization challenging India’s domestic content requirements in Phase II of this Mission, citing discrimination against US exports and that industry in US which has invested hugely will be at loss. US insists that such restrictions are prohibited by WTO. India however claims that it is only an attempt to grow local potential and to ensure self sustenance and reduce dependence.

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Solar System

02/01/2018 SHRI SOLAR No Comments

SOLAR SYSTEMS

Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaic’s (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to convert light into an electric current. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight to a hot spot, often to drive a steam turbine.

Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since then, as the cost of solar panels has fallen, grid-connected solar PV systems‘ capacity and production has doubled about every three years. Three-quarters of new generation capacity is solar, with both millions of rooftop installations and gigawatt-scale photovoltaic power stations continuing to be built.

In 2023, solar generated 5% of the world’s electricity compared to 1% in 2015, when the Paris Agreement to limit climate change was signed. Along with onshore wind, in most countries, the cheapest levelised cost of electricity for new installations is utility-scale solar.

Almost half the solar power installed in 2022 was rooftop. Much more low-carbon power is needed for electrification and to limit climate change. The International Energy Agency said in 2022 that more effort was needed for grid integration and the mitigation of policy, regulation and financing challenges.

Geography affects solar energy potential because different locations receive different amounts of solar radiation. In particular, with some variations, areas that are closer to the equator generally receive higher amounts of solar radiation. However, solar panels that can follow the position of the Sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Daytime cloud cover can reduce the light available for solar cells. Besides, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy.

Photovoltaic cells

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery. In 1931, the German engineer Bruno Lange developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide,

although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost US$286/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%. In 1957, Mohamed M. Atalla developed the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at Bell Labs. The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell efficiency.

As of 2022 over 90% of the market is crystalline silicon. The array of a photovoltaic system, or PV system, produces direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight’s intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters. Multiple solar cells are connected inside panels. Panels are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desired frequency/phase.

Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available, especially in developed countries with large markets. In these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups. Such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight.

In “vertical agrivoltaics” system, solar cells are oriented vertically on farmland, to allow the land to both grow crops and generate renewable energy. Other configurations include floating solar farms, placing solar canopies over parking lots, and installing solar panels on roofs.

Thin-film solar

A thin-film solar cell is a second generation solar cell that is made by depositing one or more thin layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).

Perovskite solar cells

A perovskite solar cell

(PSC) is a type of solar cell that includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic–inorganic lead or tin halide-based material as the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such as methyl ammonium lead halides and all-inorganic cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture.

Solar-cell efficiencies of laboratory-scale devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.7% in 2021 in single-junction architectures, and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.8%, exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells. Perovskite solar cells have therefore been the fastest-advancing solar technology as of 2016. With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive. Core problems and research subjects include their short- and long-term stability.

Hybrid systems

A hybrid system combines solar with energy storage and/or one or more other forms of generation. Hydro, wind and batteries are commonly combined with solar. The combined generation may enable the system to vary power output with demand, or at least smooth the solar power fluctuation. There is a lot of hydro worldwide, and adding solar panels on or around existing hydro reservoirs is particularly useful, because hydro is usually more flexible than wind and cheaper at scale than batteries, and existing power lines can sometimes be used.

Concentrating solar power stations

Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants, also called “solar thermal power stations”, were first developed in the 1980s. The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in California’s Mojave Desert, is the world’s largest solar thermal power plant project. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power Station (150 MW), all in Spain. The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.